The principal arenas for ethnic conflict are the territorial states into which the world is currently divided. Governments reflect the distribution of power and prestige among ethnic communities; they also influence these relationships by the policies they enact and enforce. Thus the modern state is a critical participant in inter-ethnic affairs. Within these framework ethnic communities, some claiming indigenous homeland status, others more recent arrivals, as well as governing elites, and frequently outsiders compete to shape the strategies and the institutions that govern relations among mobilized ethnic communities and between them and the state.
Political changes from the late 1960s through the mid-1990s proved both views wrong. Even in developing nations that did well economically, economic benefits did not diffuse to all segments of society or all regions. This lead some ethnically diverse states such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka to implement preferential policies that benefited some groups or regions disproportionately. Disagreements over the fruits of development made the accommodations necessary to sustain political order more difficult and contributed to outbreaks of violent conflict.
In South Africa, white Afrikaners, who were descended from Dutch and French settlers, viewed themselves as victims of British colonialism, even while using Apartheid laws to oppress black South Africans. The Great Trek and the Boer War were potent historical symbols which fuelled this sense of victimization. Afrikaners were God's chosen people, redeemed by suffering, and destined to rule over the inferior Blacks, Indians and Coloreds (mixed-race people).
Nelson Mandela and F.W. de Clerk in South Africa have shown how courageous leadership can sometimes reduce ethnic tensions. More often, political and religious leaders play a divisive role, appealing to ethnic-nationalist sentiments and scape goating rival groups in order to enhance personal political power and, in democratic societies, to win political office. "Ethnic-bashing," as this leadership......
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